Information Brief
Addressing Trends and Developments in Secondary Education and Transition
October 2004 • Vol. 3, Issue 4
Social Security and Undergraduates with Disabilities: An Analysis of the National
Postsecondary Student Aid Survey
By Hugh Berry, Megan A. Conway, and Kelly B.T. Chang
Introduction
Reducing dependence on cash assistance programs administered by the Social
Security Administration, such as Supplemental Security Income (SSI)* and Social
Security Disability Insurance (SSDI)**, and increasing economic independence
through paid employment are key federal and state policy goals. The decline
in employment rates for individuals with disabilities during the 1990s, a time
of burgeoning economic growth, has underscored the need for improving both education
and employment outcomes for students with disabilities (Burkhauser, Daley, &
Houtenville, 2000). Compared to nondisabled persons of working age, individuals
with disabilities are less likely to achieve a high school education, and even
less likely to pursue postsecondary educational opportunities (Stodden, Dowrick,
Gilmore, & Galloway, 2003). For young adults with disabilities, level of
education is positively associated with employment even when controlling for
factors such as severity of disability and SSI participation (Berry, 2000).
Examining the characteristics of postsecondary students with disabilities, including
SSDI and SSI participants, may therefore assist with the development of more
effective policies aimed at increasing economic and social independence.
The purpose of this brief is to describe the characteristics of undergraduate
students receiving SSDI and SSI benefits as they relate to issues of participation
in postsecondary education and employment. Specifically, the brief describes
results from the National Postsecondary Student Aid Survey (NPSAS, 2000) pertaining
to undergraduate students with disabilities, with a focus on the differences
between students with disabilities who receive SSI and SSDI and those who do
not. The brief discusses those results and makes recommendations for research
and practice.
* SSI provides cash assistance
to eligible persons with disabilities, including children and youth less than
18 years of age, who cannot perform a substantial gainful activity (SGA) (they
are unable to earn at least $800 per month).
** SSDI provides cash benefits to eligible persons who have worked (or whose parents
have worked) and have paid into the Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA)
and have subsequently become disabled.
NPSAS 2000: What We Know About Undergraduates with Disabilities
The National Postsecondary Student Aid Survey (NPSAS, 2000) obtained information
on 50,000 undergraduate students from 900 postsecondary institutions across
the nation. The highlights and findings of this study are examined in brief
to provide an understanding of SSDI and SSI participation in postsecondary education
programs.
Table 1. Profile of Undergraduate Students
With Disabilities During the 1999-2000 Academic Year |
|
SSI Participants |
SSDI Participants |
Nonparticipants with Disabilities |
|
Percent |
(S.E.) |
Percent |
(S.E.) |
Percent |
(S.E.) |
Sex |
Female |
53.3 |
(7.2) |
55.7 |
(5.6) |
59.1 |
(1.6) |
Male |
46.8 |
(7.2) |
44.3 |
(5.6) |
40.9 |
(1.6) |
Race |
White |
62.9 |
(8.1) |
74.7 |
(6.2) |
77.1 |
(1.3) |
African American |
30.5 |
(7.7) |
12.0 |
(3.7) |
11.1 |
(1.0) |
Other |
6.7 |
(3.0) |
13.4 |
(5.1) |
11.8 |
(0.9) |
Marital Status |
Single, Never Married |
44.1 |
(8.2) |
37.9 |
(6.7) |
57.0 |
(1.6) |
Married |
19.6 |
(6.5) |
30.8 |
(6.5) |
29.0 |
(1.3) |
Other |
36.4 |
(7.3) |
31.3 |
(5.2) |
13.9 |
(1.3) |
Dependent Children |
27.5 |
(6.3) |
40.4 |
(6.1) |
31.9 |
(1.3) |
Single Parent |
20.8 |
(5.9) |
25.3 |
(5.2) |
16.3 |
(1.1) |
Institution Type |
Four Year |
23.3 |
(5.1) |
30.4 |
(4.3) |
42.3 |
(1.5) |
Two Year |
74.6 |
(5.2) |
65.7 |
(4.5) |
54.2 |
(1.6) |
Less Than Two Year |
2.1 |
(0.8) |
3.9 |
(1.1) |
3.5 |
(0.6) |
Attendance Intensity |
Full-Time |
61.2 |
(7.8) |
44.4 |
(6.0) |
60.5 |
(1.7) |
Half-Time |
9.9 |
(4.1) |
30.4 |
(7.3) |
23.4 |
(1.4) |
Less Than Half-Time |
29.0 |
(7.4) |
25.2 |
(6.9) |
16.1 |
(1.4) |
|
Years |
|
Years |
|
Years |
|
Mean Age at Start of PSE |
40.1 |
(2.8) |
36.1 |
(1.4) |
22.5 |
(0.3) |
Mean Years for Delayed Enrollment |
8.5 |
(1.6) |
7.8 |
(1.2) |
3.7 |
(0.2) |
*Note: Percentages
may not equal 100 due to rounding.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,
1999-2000 Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS: 2000). |
Table 2. Economic Profile of Undergraduate
Students With Disabilities During the 1999-2000 Academic Year |
|
SSI Participants |
SSDI Participants |
Nonparticipants with Disabilities |
|
|
(S.E.) |
|
(S.E.) |
|
(S.E.) |
Dependency Status |
Percent Independent |
81.2 |
(5.3) |
89.3 |
(4.2) |
61.8 |
(1.3) |
Percent Dependent |
18.7 |
(4.2) |
10.8 |
(4.2) |
38.2 |
(6.5) |
Percent Receiving Loans |
18.0 |
(4.6) |
23.9 |
(4.2) |
31.2 |
(1.4) |
Percent Receiving Grants |
55.4 |
(8.9) |
48.6 |
(5.8) |
47.1 |
(1.3) |
*Note: Percentages
may not equal 100 due to rounding.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,
1999-2000 Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS: 2000). |
Table 3. Financial Profile of Undergraduate
Students With Disabilities During the 1999-2000 Academic Year |
|
SSI Participants |
SSDI Participants |
Nonparticipants with Disabilities |
Mean Total Loans During Year |
--- |
--- |
$5,684 |
(477) |
$5,867 |
(165) |
Mean Total Borrowed as of 2000 |
$7,238 |
(1,765) |
$11,529 |
(1,657) |
$10,879 |
(378) |
Mean Total Grants |
$2,550 |
(469) |
$2,830 |
(337) |
$3,091 |
(116) |
Mean Tuition and Fees |
$1,906 |
(342) |
$1,636 |
(193) |
$2,906 |
(121) |
Mean Student Adjusted Budget |
$6,836 |
(773) |
$7,577 |
(521) |
$8,811 |
(194) |
| Source: U.S. Department
of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1999-2000 Postsecondary
Student Aid Study (NPSAS: 2000). |
Highlights
In general:
- SSA program participants represented 8.3% of all undergraduates with disabilities
or 125,000 students. Of these, 57% or 71,000 were SSDI participants, 36% or
45,000 were SSI participants, and 7% or 8,000 received both SSI and SSDI.
- Students with disabilities, including SSA program participants, were more
often female, white, and single.
- For all groups, students with orthopedic impairments represented roughly
a third of all undergraduates with disabilities. Students with mental illness
and health impairments were the second and third most predominant disability
groups represented, respectively.
Differences between SSA participants and nonparticipants with disabilities:
- Both SSI and SSDI undergraduates delayed enrolling in postsecondary education
after high school at an average rate (mean delay) that was twice as long as
for undergraduates without disabilities (nine and eight years as compared
to four years).
- The mean age of postsecondary enrollment for students with disabilities
was 33 years. Nonparticipants with disabilities were on average 23 years of
age; SSDI participants were on average 36 years of age; and SSI participants
were on average 40 years of age.
- SSI and SSDI participants reported significantly lower annual income when
compared to nonparticipants with disabilities.
- SSI participants were less likely to receive loans (18%) than SSDI participants
(24%; p < .10) and nonparticipants with disabilities (31%), and also tended
to borrow less than these groups.
- On average, both SSI and SSDI participants spent less on tuition and fees
than nonparticipants with disabilities.
- Both SSI and SSDI participants were more likely to have independent status
(i.e. no one else can claim them as a dependent) than nonparticipants with
disabilities (81%, 90%, and 62%, respectively).
Differences between SSI participants and SSDI participants:
- African American students with disabilities were three times more likely
to be SSI participants than to be SSDI participants and nonparticipants, while
Caucasian and other students were less likely to be SSI participants than
to be SSDI participants or nonparticipants.
- SSI participants were significantly less likely than SSDI participants and
nonparticipants with disabilities to enroll in four-year postsecondary institutions
and more likely to enroll in two-year colleges.
- SSDI participants more often had dependents and/or were single parents than
SSI participants and nonparticipants with disabilities.
- SSDI participants were substantially less likely to attend full-time when
compared to SSI participants and nonparticipants with disabilities (44.4%
versus 61.2% and 60.5%, respectively).
Discussion
The similarities and differences among SSA program participants in postsecondary
education settings warrant consideration, as they may relate to legislative
and other efforts intending to promote postsecondary education completion and
subsequent employment outcomes for persons with disabilities.
- Given that many SSDI participants had dependent children and/or were single
parents, findings presented here suggest that many of these students
may face substantial personal and family obligations that may compete with
those of postsecondary studies. SSDI participants
were also less likely to attend full-time than SSI participants and nonparticipants
with disabilities, also suggesting that SSDI participants may experience challenges
to degree attainment that extend beyond disability alone. On the other hand,
the goals of individuals with disabilities receiving SSDI may not necessarily
include achieving a degree. Rather, focusing on education and training that
may enhance short-term employment opportunities may be a reasonable and urgent
goal for parents with disabilities. While greater work earnings may open up
with a four-year degree, the necessity of addressing immediate economic and
family responsibilities may take precedence.
- SSI participants experienced higher levels of poverty and were less likely
to receive loans than nonparticipants. They were also more often enrolled
in postsecondary institutions with programs lasting two years or less, rather
than four-year colleges or universities. To some extent, findings
about economic circumstances of SSI participants may be influenced by program
eligibility itself. That is, earnings and assets restrictions,
in addition to the existence of severe disability, may define economic status
and discourage loan or grant receipt. For example, if a student received a
$512 monthly SSI payment, or $6,144 annually, she may avoid loans or grants
that would jeopardize her continued eligibility for cash and health benefits.
From this perspective, program eligibility restrictions may inadvertently
discourage increased attendance and degree attainment.
- The late age of enrollment of SSI participants may suggest that few
youth (i.e., under 18 years) who are SSA participants succeed in gaining access
to postsecondary education within a year after exiting high school.
Indeed, many high school students with disabilities, including SSI participants,
fail to achieve a 12th-grade education (U.S. Department of Education, 2002b;
Berry, 2000). This may be due, in part, to essential differences in the SSI
child and youth population when compared to adult participants. That is, 63%
of children and youth receiving SSI benefits have some type of mental disorder,
and more than half of these are diagnosed with mental retardation (Pickett,
2002). While SSA and NPSAS disability categories are not directly comparable,
it is also interesting that persons with orthopedic impairments represented
the largest disability category for both SSI and SSDI undergraduates in this
study.
Delayed enrollment in postsecondary education is a significant issue for undergraduates
with disabilities as a whole (Horn & Berktold, 1999), and improving access
to and retention in postsecondary education for SSA program participants must
be addressed if positive employment outcomes and economic independence for individuals
with disabilities are to be realized. Including high school students in Social
Security work/educational incentives – for example, a paid work-study
program – should not be ignored as a means of providing students with
career guidance and opportunities to explore self-support. Professionals, parents,
and students should also identify postsecondary goals early in the high school
Individualized Education Program (IEP) process to give students opportunities
to explore academic and work opportunities in secondary school that will help
them meet their postsecondary goals.
Recommendations
SSA programs can provide students with much-needed financial support. Rather
than discouraging students with disabilities from participating in SSA, there
is a need to provide them with more information about financial aid options
and SSA work/education incentive programs. For example, students may need assistance
in accessing the financial support that SSA and postsecondary financial aid
programs offer while seeking to obtain a postsecondary degree and become gainfully
employed.
It is also evident that further research is needed in order to investigate
discrepancies in SSA program and postsecondary education participation. Specifically:
- More information is needed about the high representation of African American
postsecondary students (30.5%), as compared with other racial groups, among
SSI participants. More information is also needed about how students who face
challenges in addition to those posed by disability, such as socioeconomic
status, race, and familial responsibility, are negotiating postsecondary education.
- There is a need to increase financial aid resources and information geared
specifically toward postsecondary students with disabilities. Financial aid
specialists and campus disability support providers need to be made aware
of economic circumstances and financial opportunities that may be linked with
having a disability.
- Further consideration is needed regarding ways in which SSA work incentive
programs, such as Student Earned Income Exclusions, Impairment Related Work
Expense, and the Plan For Achieving Self-Support Program can best be utilized
to enable students with disabilities to work while they are going to school.
- Attention is needed regarding how eligibility requirements for SSI and SSDI
may be limiting opportunities for postsecondary students with disabilities.
For example, age limits on educational incentive programs such as earnings
exemptions may not be appropriate given the late entry to postsecondary education
(average age 36-40) of students with disabilities who are SSA participants.
- Further research is needed to explore the reasons why students with disabilities,
both SSA participants and nonparticipants, tend to attend two-year postsecondary
programs rather than four-year postsecondary programs, especially given that
completion of a four-year degree tends to lead to better employment outcomes.
- Research is needed to explore the reasons why students with disabilities,
especially SSA participants, enroll in postsecondary institutions years after
graduating from secondary school.
In summary, social security benefits serve a two-fold purpose to people with
disabilities—providing assistance to those in need, while also reducing
their need for assistance. Postsecondary education may be an effective middle
ground for these purposes, and is often the key to better employment outcomes.
While postsecondary students with disabilities are in need of financial assistance,
they are also improving their odds of financial independence. Effective ways
to improve postsecondary education participation for SSA recipients must be
studied and optimized in order to maximize the efficiency and effectiveness
of SSA programs.
References
Berry, H. G. (2000, Fall). The
Supplemental Security Income Program and employment for young adults with disabilities:
An analysis of the National Health Interview Survey on Disability. Focus
On Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 15(3). Retrieved August 4, 2006,
from http://www.worksupport.com/Main/proed8.asp
Burkhauser, R. V., Daly, M. C., & Houtenville, A. J. (2000). How working
age people with disabilities fared over the 1990s business cycle. Ithaca,
NY: Cornell University.
Horn, L., & Berktold, J. (1999). Students
with disabilities in postsecondary education: A profile of preparation, participation,
and outcomes. Retrieved August 4, 2006, from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/quarterly/vol_1/1_3/4-esq13-a.asp
Pickett, C. (2002). Children
receiving SSI – December 2000. Retrieved October 12, 2004 from
http://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/ssi_children/2000/dec/
Stodden, R. A., Dowrick, P. W., Gilmore, S., & Galloway, L. (2003). A
review of secondary school factors influencing postschool outcomes for youth
with disabilities. Retrieved October 28, 2003, from http://www.rrtc.hawaii.edu/documents/products/phase1/043-H01.pdf
U.S. Department of Education (2002a). National
Postsecondary Student Aid Study: Data Analysis System. Retrieved April
12, 2003, from http://www.nces.ed.gov/surveys/npsas/das.asp
Resources
Social Security Administration
http://www.ssa.gov/
Social Security
Administration Handbook http://www.socialsecurity.gov/disabilityresearch/redbook.htm
Hugh Berry is with the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative
Services, U.S. Department of Education; Megan A. Conway and Kelly B.T. Chang
are with the Center on Disability Studies at the University of Hawaii.
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This report was supported in whole or in part by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, (Cooperative Agreement No. H326J000005). The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the policy or position of the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, and no official endorsement by the Department should be inferred.
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